Defoe y Swift: Vidas paralelas En la geometría, y dicho de manera poco precisa, se llama “paralelas” a dos líneas rectas cuyas extensiones hacia el infinito no se cruzan en ningún punto. Algo similar se puede afirmar de las vidas de Daniel Defoe y de Jonathan Swift que parecen no haberse cruzado, lo que constituye un hecho lo más de curioso.
Daniel Defoe y Jonathan Swift son dos de los más importantes escritores ingleses de todas las épocas y seguramente los dos más importantes de sus propios tiempos. Vivieron durante mucho tiempo de su vida en Londres. Defoe nació en 1660 y Swift en 1667. Seguramente habían tenido más de una oportunidad de conocerse, especialmente dado su cercanía con la corte y su notoriedad pública. Tenían amigos influyentes en el gobierno, publicaban panfletos políticos que eran leídos asiduamente, competían con sus libros por el interés de los lectores.
Sin embargo, en sus respectivas obras y, lo que es incluso más increíble, en las biografías que sobre sus vidas y obras se han escrito, no se encuentran referencias cruzadas (con dos o tres excepciones a cargo de un biógrafo al que este hecho le debió parecer igual de notable que a mí).
Esto es realmente curioso, porque hay al menos un tema en el que un diálogo entre sus panfletos hubiera sido más que natural: la religión. Defoe era miembro de los dissenter, un grupo de protestantes que se encontraban en oposición a la iglesia anglicana, a la que pertenecía Swift. Los dissenter no podían acceder a cargos públicos ni militares; por esta razón, Defoe se dedicó al comercio y al periodismo. Un panfleto suyo publicado en 1702, La manera más corta de lidiar con los dissenter: o propuestas para el establecimiento de la iglesia, atacaba por igual a anglicanos como protestantes que practicaban lo que se llamaba “conformidad ocasional” a los juramentos de la iglesia establecida. Su tono satírico no fue bien recibido por la corte y Defoe fue encarcelado, multado y puesto en el cepo en tres plazas públicas.
En 1704, Swift publicó su famoso primer libro Cuento de un tonel en 1704, en el cual de manera satírica examina las diferencias entre las tres iglesias católica, anglicana y protestante. Unos cuatro años después publicó otro de sus famosos panfletos, que tiene un título extraordinario: Un argumento para probar que la abolición de la cristiandad en Inglaterra podría, así como están las cosas hoy en día, verse atendida por algunos inconvenientes y quizá no producir los muchos buenos efectos que se se han propuesto.
Estos panfletos son los más importantes que sobre el tema del sectarismo religioso escribieron los dos autores. Muestran que los dos asumieron el debate cada uno desde la perspectiva de su propio punto de vista y de acuerdo con los intereses propios de su posición en la sociedad, sin establecer un diálogo o siquiera una confrontación directa. Esto hace pensar que la ávida publicación de panfletos servía al fin de manipular la opinión pública, que recibía estos extraordinarios escritos interesada, escandalizada y quizá también algo entretenida. Un extraño caso de diálogo de sordos.
Una cosa es que los dos se hayan, por así decirlo, ignorado durante su vida en Londres. Otra cosa diferente es que los biógrafos y críticos traten a cada uno de ellos como si hubieran vivido en planetas diferentes, o al menos en tiempos diferentes. El Londres de Swift es descrito como diferente al de Defoe; su visión de política, igualmente.
Quizá sea porque Defoe y Swift hayan personalizado conceptos de “ciudadano” diametralmente opuestos. El ciudadano Swift es el más tradicional de los dos; apegado a las instituciones con poder (la iglesia y la corte), con una visión política extraída de los clásicos y del derecho. El ciudadano Defoe es mucho más moderno; comerciante, revolucionario, periodista, economista, geógrafo, moralista… la lista es larga y siempre incompleta. En este contraste, Swift es el ciudadano de una monarquía renacentista que siente sus raíces en el medioevo; Defoe es el ciudadano de un naciente imperio comercial global. Así, quizá con alguna razón hayan tenido vidas paralelas: el uno mirando hacia atrás, el otro hacia adelante.
Fuentes:
Defoe, Daniel. The Shortest-Way with the Dissenters; Or, Proposals for the Establishment of the Church. 1702.
Swift, Jonathan. A Tale of a Tub. 1704.
Swift, Jonathan. An Argument to Prove that the Abolishing of Christianity in England May, as Things Now Stand Today, be Attended with Some Inconveniences, and Perhaps not Produce Those Many Good Effects Proposed Thereby. 1708.
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New Glenn’s first flight Blue Origin formally announced the development of New Glenn — which aims to outpower SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rockets and haul spacecraft up to 45 metric tons 99200 pounds to orbit — in 2016. kraken зайти The vehicle is long overdue as the company previously targeted 2020 for its first launch. Delays however are common in the aerospace industry. And the debut flight of a new vehicle is almost always significantly behind schedule. Rocket companies also typically take a conservative approach to the first liftoff launching dummy payloads such as hunks of metal or as was the case with SpaceX’s Falcon Heavy debut in 2018 an old cherry red sports car. https://kra26att.cc kra27 at Blue Origin has also branded itself as a company that aims to take a slow diligent approach to rocket development that doesn’t “cut any corners” according to Bezos who founded Blue Origin and funds the company. The company’s mascot is a tortoise paying homage to “The Tortoise and the Hare” fable that made the “slow and steady wins the race” mantra a childhood staple. “We believe slow is smooth and smooth is fast” Bezos said in 2016. Those comments could be seen as an attempt to position Blue Origin as the anti-SpaceX which is known to embrace speed and trial-and-error over slow meticulous development processes. But SpaceX has certainly won the race to orbit. The company’s first orbital rocket the Falcon 1 made a successful launch in September 2008. The company has deployed hundreds of missions to orbit since then. And while SpaceX routinely destroys rockets during test flights as it begins developing a new rocket the company has a solid track record for operational missions. SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket for example has experienced two in-flight failures and one launchpad explosion but no catastrophic events during human missions.
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